Color-Coded Safety Glossary

First Aid/CPR - Health/Well-being - Home and Workplace Safety - Lifeguarding/Water Safety - Swimming/Aquatics

A-B     C-D     E-F     G-H     I-J     K-L     M-N     O-P    Q-R     S-T     U-V     W-X-Y-Z

E

ear

The organ of hearing, consisting of three sections: the outer ear (the part seen along the sides of the head behind the temples), the middle ear, and the inner ear. In terms of function, however, the ear has four parts: the three section of the ear and the auditory cortex of the brain.

earache, ear infection

A painful inflammation of the middle ear or ear canal (swimmer’s ear), usually caused by bacterial infection.

ease-in entry

An entry used by lifeguards or others to safely slide into the water when the depth of the water and the bottom conditions are not known. The ease in entry is also used when entering the water close to an injured victim to minimize turbulence that might disturb or further injury the victim. It is also known as the slide-in or slip-in entry. 

To perform the ease-in entry:

1. Sit on the deck or dock at the water’s edge with the rescue tube strap over one shoulder and the rescue tube to one side.
2. Facing the water and using both hands, lower yourself into the water gently so you do not disturb the water or land on the bottom hard. 
3. Grab the rescue tube and position it under your armpits to begin an approach to the victim. If you are trying to minimize turbulence, use a breaststroke approach.

echocardiogram (echo)

A test that uses high frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to make pictures of your heart. Your doctor may use an echo test to look at your heart’s structure and check how well your heart functions. An “echo” provides valuable information about the health of the heart and abnormal rhythms (arrhythmias).

edema

Swelling due to an abnormally large amount of fluid in the intracellular body tissue spaces. Edema is characterized by a “pitting” effect; when you press into the swollen skin with a finger, the impression of the finger remains in the skin. Edema is common in the legs, ankles, and lungs of people with heart failure. Photo courtesy of James Heilman, MD.

eggbeater kick

A highly refined and efficient method of treading water, performed by having the swimmer in a “sitting position” with back straight and knees bent so that the thighs are parallel, and lower legs perpendicular, to the surface of the water. The left foot makes circular, clockwise motions and the right leg makes circular, counterclockwise motions while the knees pump up and down.

The eggbeater kick (sometimes called the rotary kick) is used in lifeguarding, synchronized swimming, and water polo. This kick is so efficient that the hands can be used for other purposes, such as catching or throwing a water polo ball or holding a drowning victim while moving the safety.

For additional information about the eggbeater kick, check out these instructional videos:

• How to Do the Eggbeater Kick (Phillip Toriello)
• Eggbeater (CWPA Tip of the Week by Wolf Wigo and Brian Schmaucher)
• Eggbeater Kick for Synchronized Swimming (Ymajahi Brooks)
• Water Polo 101: Eggbeater and Treading Water (La Mirada Shaquatics Water Polo Club)

EKG

Electrocardiogram.

elastic wrap

A stretchable bandage used to create localized pressure or compression of an injury to reduce swelling, provide support, or to act as a temporary cast. Elastic wrap is also used to hold cold packs in place or to apply pressure immobilization of an extremity for snake bites.

elbow

The juncture of the long bones in the middle of the arm.

electrolyte

A substance that dissociates into ions in solution and acquires the ability to conduct electricity. These substances include calcium, chlorine, phosphate, potassium, and sodium.

elder abuse

The physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment of an elderly person, usually one who is frail or disabled.

elderly

Of, relating to, or characteristic of, older persons or life in later years.

electrical injuries

The result of electric current passing through the body, usually disrupting the normal function of organs and body function and/or burning body tissue. Often the main sign of an electrical injury is a burn, but not all serious injuries of this type can be seen. First aid responders and medical personnel often check for abnormal heart rhythms, fractures and dislocations, and spinal cord injuries that may have been caused by contact with electric current.

Electrical injury may result from contact with faulty electrical appliances/machinery or inadvertent contact with household wiring or electrical power lines. Getting shocked by touching an electrical outlet or a small appliance in the home is rarely serious, but accidental exposure to high voltage causes about 400 deaths each year in the United States. The severity of the injury ranges from minor to fatal and is determined by the following factors:

• Type of current. Electrical current is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Direct current, such as current generated by batteries, flows in the same direction constantly. Alternating current, such as current in wall sockets in the United States and Europe, changes direction 50 to 60 times per second. Alternating current is more dangerous than direct current. Direct current tends to cause a single muscle contraction often strong enough to force people away from the current’s source. Alternating current causes a continuing muscle contraction, often preventing people from releasing their grip on the current’s source. As a result, exposure may be prolonged.
• Duration of exposure. In general, the longer the person is exposed to the current, the worse the injury.
• Intensity of the current. The intensity of the current is measured in volts and amperes. Ordinary household current in the United States is 110 to 220 volts. A standard electrical outlet is 110 volts, and 220 volts is used for large appliances such as dryers or refrigerators. Anything over 500 volts is considered high voltage. High voltage can jump (arc) through the air anywhere from an inch up to several feet, depending on the voltage. Thus, a person may be injured simply by coming too close to a high-voltage line.
• Electrical resistance to the current. Resistance is the ability to impede the flow of electricity. Most of the body’s resistance is concentrated in the skin. The thicker the skin is, the greater its resistance. A thick, callused palm or sole, for example, is much more resistant to electrical current than an area of thin skin. The skin’s resistance decreases when broken or wet. If skin resistance is high, more of the damage is local, often causing only skin burns. If skin resistance is low, more of the damage affects the internal organs.
• Pathway of the current through the body. The path that the electricity takes through the body tends to determine which tissues are affected. Because alternating current continually reverses direction, the commonly used terms “entry” and “exit” are inappropriate. The terms “source” and “ground” are more precise. The most common source point for electricity is the hand, and the second most common is the head. The most common ground point is the foot. A current that travels from arm to arm or from arm to leg may go through the heart and is much more dangerous than a current that travels between a leg and the ground. A current that travels through the head may affect the brain.

To care for electrical injuries:

elementary backstroke

A simple resting/leisure/survival stroke performed on the back by drawing hands up along the sides of the body to the armpits, then extending the arms out about shoulder level and pressing the arms to the side while at the same time dropping the ankles and bending the knees in a circular inverted whip kick. The stroke is timed so the arms and legs end their circular patterns at the same time so that the swimmer glides with arms at the sides and legs closed and straight with toes pointed. After a brief glide, the swimmer repeat the arm and leg actions to continue swimming. Breathing occurs regularly; inhalation when arms and legs separate and exhalation when they come together in the power phase before the glide.

The elementary backstroke, while not a competitive swim stroke today, may have been performed in competition in the 1900 Paris Olympics along with the back crawl. However, this type of backstroke never became a mainstay of competition (although it, or any other style of backstroke, may be performed in a backstroke competitive event). Today, it is most notably taught in the American Red Cross Learn-to-Swim program as a resting/leisure stroke and as the first organized backstroke taught in that program.

The elementary backstroke should not be confused with the inverted breaststroke, a different resting/leisure backstroke with a timing similar to the breaststroke.

Here are a few videos showing the elementary backstroke being performed:

• Elementary backstroke - the Basics (Chris Burton)
• How to Swim the Elementary Backstroke (Drew Porter)

embolism

An obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot or foreign object. Foreign objects that can cause an embolism include air bubbles, amniotic fluid, chemicals, a clump of bacteria, drugs, or a fat globule.

emergency

A sudden, unexpected incident that requires immediate action to prevent or reduce loss of life, illness, injury, and/or property damage.

emergency kit

A collection of essential items to have for a disaster that cuts off access to food, water, utilities, medical aid, etc. When preparing an emergency kit, consider the family’s need for food, water, light, shelter, etc. Necessities include the following:

• Water for drinking and sanitation-A 3-day supply (store 1 gallon a day per family member)
  • Buy commercially bottled water and store it is a cool, dark place; do not open containers until needed
  • Observe expiration or “use by” dates and replace water as needed
  • More water may be needed for children, nursing mothers, or medical emergencies
  • If you live in a warm climate, double the amount of water for each person
  • Pets need water too
• Food-At least a 3-day supply of nonperishable items like high-energy snacks, grains, nuts, and canned goods
  • Select foods your family will eat
  • Keep in mind any special dietary requirements
  • Avoid foods that make you thirsty (e.g., choose salt-free nuts and crackers, whole grains, and canned foods with a high liquid content)
  • Select items that do not require refrigeration, cooking, water, or other preparations
  • Pets need food too-canned or dry food is preferable
  • Rotate food items every 2 months
  • Include a manual can opener and eating utensils
• A blanket or sleeping bag for each person
• Prescription medications for at least 3 days
• Battery-powered or hand-crank radio
• Flashlights and extra batteries
• Cash in small denominations
• Important family documents for identification, etc. in a waterproof pouch
• First aid kit
• Hand sanitizer, alcohol-based
• Chlorine bleach, unscented-1 part bleach and 9 parts water can be used as a disinfectant; 16 drops of bleach can treat a gallon of water
• Moist towelettes with bleach, garbage bags and ties, paper towels, etc. for personal sanitation
• Dust masks, one for each family members
• A wrench or pliers to shut off utilities (i.e., natural gas, water, and electricity)
• A good knife
• Pet supplies (if applicable)
  • Water and food-At least 3 days for each pet
  • Litter or paper towels
  • Disposable litter trays (i.e., aluminum roasting pans) or pads
  • Small bags for collecting poop
  • Water and food bowls
  • Sturdy leaches and harnesses
  • Blanket or bedding
  • Pet toys and treats
  • Recent photos of the pet
• Whistles to signal for help
• Local maps

For more information about emergency kits:

• American Red Cross
• ASPCA (for pets)
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Department of Homeland Security

emergency plan

Detailed written procedures for responding to an emergency, such as a fire or explosion, a chemical spill, or an uncontrolled release of energy. An emergency plan is necessary to keep order, to decrease the effects of the disaster, and to make sure that all required interventions and safety measures are taken.

encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain.

engineering control

A physical device or method used to eliminate or minimize a hazard.  Examples of engineering controls include elimination, enclosure, isolation, substitution, workplace design, etc. 

entry

(1) Any means of entering the water employed by a swimmer, diver, bather, or wader. (2) Any of the techniques used by lifeguards or other rescuers to safely enter the water to begin a swimming rescue of a distressed or drowning victim.

environment

The circumstances, conditions, and other biological and chemical factors by which we are surrounded and that act upon us, other organisms, and the ecological community, ultimately requiring adaptation for survival. The environment can also refer to the conditions, positive or negative, of a smaller area such as the home or workplace.

environmental emergency

An incident resulting in death, injury, or property damage caused or sustained by harmful factors originating in the conditions, circumstances, or biological organisms, or chemical makeup of the surroundings.

environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)

Smoke generated by lit cigars, cigarettes, and pipes, inhaled by first-hand smokers, and then exhaled into the air (also called second-hand smoke). in 1992, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) completed a risk assessment and concluded that widespread exposure to ETS presented a serious and substantial public health impact. The EPA further concluded that ETS is a human lung carcinogen, responsible for approximately 3,000 lung-cancer deaths annually among US nonsmokers.

environmental toxicology

The study of pollutants in the air, dust, sediment, soil, and water as well as natural poisons in the environment.

epidemic

A sudden, severe outbreak of a disease.

epidemiology

The study of disease in a general population. The rate of occurrence and distribution of a particular disease (by age, gender, or occupation) may provide information about the causes of disease.

epidermis

The thin outer layer of skin.

epiglottis

The flap that covers the trachea during swallowing so that food cannot enter the lungs.

epinephrine

A hormone that is secreted by the adrenal gland in response to physical or mental stress, as from fear, and is regulated by the autonomic nervous system (also known as adrenaline). The release of epinephrine causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate. Epinephrine is administered as a drug to people who suffer asthma attacks as well as to those who have a severe allergic reaction to food, insect bites, or other triggers called anaphylaxis.

equalizing pressure

A technique for forcing air of a different pressure into the middle ear during ambient pressure changes, such as during diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and air travel. The key to safely equalizing pressure is to gently open the normally closed Eustachian tubes of the ear, allowing higher- or lower-pressure air from your throat to enter the middle ears. This can be done using various methods, including:

• Swallowing.
• Yawning.
• Toynbee maneuver-performed by pinching the nose and swallowing.
• Valsalva maneuver-performed by closing the mouth, pinching the nose, and blowing gently into the nostrils.
• Lowry technique-performed by combining Toynbee and Valsalva.

No single method is considered safest or most successful in equalization of the middle ear pressure. Using alternative techniques may improve the success individually when a technique fails.

ergonomics

The study of people in the workplace with the goal of reducing stress and eliminating injuries due to overuse of muscles, bad posture, and repeated tasks. To learn more about ergonomics, go to the CDC Ergonomics and Muscular Disorders webpage.

escape

Any of the techniques used by lifeguards or other rescuers to break the grip of a distressed or actively drowning victim who has managed to take hold of the rescuer during the execution of the rescue. Historically, escapes have included front and rear head-hold escapes and double-grip on one wrist escape. All escapes require the rescuer to take a breath, submerge with the victim, and use leverage to break the victim’s grip.

• For the front and rear head-hold escapes, the rescuer takes a breath, tucks the chin, submerges with the victim and lifts the victim’s arms from the head.
• For the double-grip on one wrist escape, the rescuer takes a breath, grasps his/her arm and pushes down and then pulls up abruptly against the victim’s thumbs to break the victim’s grip.

ETS

Environmental tobacco smoke (second-hand smoke).

euphoria

An elevated mood, sometimes derived artificially by drug use or abuse.

Eustachian tube

A narrow channel that links the nasopharynx to the middle ear. In adult humans, the Eustachian tube is approximately 1.4 inches (35 mm) long and 0.12 inches (3 mm) in diameter. It is named for the sixteenth-century anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachi.

In humans and other land animals the middle ear (like the ear canal) is normally filled with air. Unlike the open ear canal, however, the air of the middle ear is not in direct contact with the atmosphere outside the body. The Eustachian tube connects from the chamber of the middle ear to the back of the nasopharynx.

Normally, the Eustachian tube is collapsed, but it gapes open both with swallowing and with positive pressure. When taking off in an airplane, the surrounding air pressure goes from higher on the ground to lower in the sky. The air in the middle ear expands as the plane gains altitude, and pushes its way into the back of the nose and mouth. On the way down, the volume of air in the middle ear shrinks, and a slight vacuum is produced. Active opening of the Eustachian tube is required to equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the surrounding atmosphere as the plane descends. The diver also experiences this change in pressure, but with greater rates of pressure change; active opening of the Eustachian tube is required more frequently as the diver goes deeper into higher pressure.

exercise

Physical activity that makes you move your body, increase your heart rate, and burn calories to improve your health and lower the risk of heart disease and stroke.

exercise-induced asthma

A narrowing of the airways in the lungs that is triggered by strenuous exercise. It causes shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, and other symptoms during or after exercise.

exercise stress test

Walking on a treadmill or pedaling a stationary bicycle while connected to equipment to monitor heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, electrical activity of the heart or heart rhythm and how long the physical activity is tolerated without getting too tired. The exercise stress test also called a cardiac stress test, treadmill stress test or just stress test is used to assess how well the heart responds to physical activity based on observing an electrocardiogram.

exhaustion

The body’s natural response to stress, exercise, hard work, or overheating, characterized by dizziness, sweating, weakness, headache, muscle cramps, rapid breathing, rapid pulse, and pale/ashen skin.

• Heat exhaustion is a condition in which the body’s cooling mechanisms are beginning to be overwhelmed by exposure to heat.
• Exhaustion in deep water can be a contributing cause of drowning.

To overcome exhaustion, stop all physical activity and rest. If possible, move from a harsh or dangerous environment to a cool one and remove sweat-soaked or restrictive clothing. Drink small sips of a sports drink or milk if dehydrated.

eye

The organ of sight; one of a pair of spherical bodies contained in an orbit of the skull, appearing externally as a dense, white, curved membrane (sclera) surrounding a circular, colored portion (iris) covered by a clear, curved membrane (cornea) with an opening (pupil) in the center through which light passes to the retina. 

eyelash

One of the stiff hairs that projects from the margin of the eyelid.

eyelid

A movable fold of skin and muscle that can close over the eye and open at will. Each eye has an upper and lower lid. The eyelid is also called the palpebra.

F

facility surveillance

Periodic checks of the various areas within an aquatic facility for operation, cleanliness, and safety.

Fahrenheit

A thermometer scale, devised in 1724 by Gabriel Fahrenheit, in which the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point of water is 212°F. The Fahrenheit scale is used primarily in the United States, requiring conversion to and from Celsius (°C), used in the rest of the world. The following equations do the conversion: F=(9/5)(C)+32 and C=(5/9)(F)-32. See Celsius.

fear of automatons (automatonophobia)

An abnormal fear of dummies, CPR manikins, statues, wax figures, or anything created to represent a human being.

fear of bathing or washing (ablutophobia)

An abnormal and persistent anxiety concerning the thought of bathing, washing, or cleaning.

fear of blood (hemophobia)

An abnormal and persistent anxiety concerning the thought of bleeding or the sight of blood.

fear of confined spaces (claustrophobia)

An excessive and persistent anxiety of being placed or trapped in a tight-fitting room, trunk, or other location.

fear of depths (bathophobia)

An abnormal or persistent anxiety of being consumed by depths, including underwater depths.

fear of microbes (bacillophobia)

An abnormal and persistent fear of bacilli (bacteria) or other microscopic creatures.

fear of nosebleeds (epistaxiophobia)

An excessive and persistent anxiety about having or seeing blood coming from the nose.

fear of sharks (galeophobia)

An excessive and persistent anxiety about sharks, even when safe in a boat, on a beach, or in their homes.

fear of spiders (arachnophobia)

An excessive and persistent fear of spiders.

fear of water (aquaphobia)

A persistent and abnormal fear of entering the water, swimming, being splashed unexpectedly, being around large bodies of water, being thrown into the water, etc.

febrile

Feverish.

febrile seizure

A convulsive event that occurs in small children (under 5 years of age) due to a rapid increase in body temperature.

fecal incident

A term used to describe the sudden appearance of pool in a swimming pool. Also called an accidental fecal release or AFR.

The appearance of feces in the swimming pool is a concern for participants, lifeguards, and pool operators alike. Despite normal disinfection and filtration processes in the pool, the pool must be closed so that stronger measures can be taken to remove the waste and kill any pathogens in the water. Keeping participants in the water can result in the spread of a recreational water illness (RWI).

The procedure to remove fecal waste and to kill potential pathogens in the water depends on the following factors:

• Consistency of the feces. A diarrheal fecal incident is a higher-risk event than a formed-stool incident. With most diarrheal illnesses, the number of infectious germs found in each bowel movement decreases as the diarrhea stops and the person’s bowel movements return to normal. A formed stool may contain no germs, a few, or many that can cause illness. You won’t know. The germs that may be present are less likely to be released into the pool because they are mostly contained within the stool. However, formed stool also protects germs inside from being exposed to the chlorine in the pool, so prompt removal is necessary. 
• The quantity of chlorine used to disinfect the water. Chlorine kills pathogens in the water, but it does not work immediately. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), if pool water contains 1 part free chlorine to 1 million parts water, the E. coli bacterium would be inactive in less than a minute, but the Giardia parasite would last 45 minutes and the Cryptosporidium parasite (Crypto) would last over 10 days! Higher concentrations of chlorine in pool water kills pathogens quicker; for example, at 10 parts per million, Crypto is destroyed in 25.5 hours.

To respond to a fecal incident in a swimming pool:

1. Close the pool immediately.
2. Remove any solid pieces of feces without causing it to break apart. Use a scooping tool attached to a pole. Do not vacuum.
3. Increase the free chlorine residual in the water to the following levels and times:
   • For formed feces: At least 2 ppm for 25 minutes
   • For diarrheal feces: At least 20 ppm for 13 hours
4. Be sure to maintain a pH reading of 7.5 or less and a water temperature of 77° F (25° C) or higher during the entire time.
5. For a diarrheal incident, backwash the filters after the time in step 3 has passed. If appropriate, replace the filter media.
6. Maintain a record of the incident in a fecal incident log. Record the time of the incident, the type of feces, and the measures taken in response (see steps 1 to 5).

To learn more about fecal incidents and RWIs, go to the CDC’s Disinfection & Remediation of Pools & Hot Tubs web page. (Just for fun, here is the classic Caddyshack Poop in the Pool Scene with Bill Murray-Careful! Brief nudity!)

feces

Excrement discharged from the intestines.

femur

The large bone of the thigh that extends from the hip to the knee.

fetus

An unborn offspring from the end of the 8th week after conception until birth.

fever

A rise in body temperature above normal.

fiber

Dietary fiber describes several materials that make up the parts of plants your body can’t digest. When eaten regularly as part of a diet low in saturated fat, trans fats and cholesterol, soluble fiber can help decrease your risk of heart disease. Whole grains and fruits and vegetables include dietary fiber, while most refined (processed) grains contain little fiber.

finning

A simple arm stroke performed on the back. To fin, recover forearms up toward the shoulder and then press down to the thighs and repeat without gliding. Finning is also known as winging.

first aid

The immediate care given to a person who is injured or who suddenly becomes ill. It can range from disinfecting a cut and applying a bandage to helping someone who is choking or having a heart attack.

First Aid for Public Safety Personnel

A 21-hour, comprehensive first aid/CPR/AED program (also known as Title 22 First Aid) required by the State of California for public safety personnel, specifically firefighters, lifeguards, and peace officers. The name “Title 22” First Aid refers to the location of the law which describes the program in the California Code of Regulations, Title 22, Division 9, Chapter 1.5, Articles 1–4. 

This law has been a requirement in California since 1987. It was significantly revised on February 25, 2015. 

fitness swimming

An exercise program that involves swimming up and back or in a circular pattern within a lane to achieve a specified level of intensity sustained for a set time. Also called lap swimming.

five functions of a lifeguard

A principle from the National Aquatic Safety Company (NASCO) lifeguard training course that divides the role and duties of lifeguard into 5 main areas (ranked in order of importance as well as performance):

• Recognition-A lifeguard must be able to recognize victims, as well as high-risk areas, high-risk guests, high-risk times, and high-risk behaviors. The task of lifeguard begins and ends with this recognition.
• Prevention-Once high-risk issues have been identified, the next step is to prevent these issues from occurring.
• Rescue-This is listed third because of the importance of the first two functions. Do not concentrate on, or anticipate, rescues at the expense of recognition and prevention. Lifeguards may have to rescue someone if a hazard or dangerous practice cannot be prevented. [Although not expressly mentioned, it is assumed that the rescue continues through the administration of first aid or CPR according to local protocols.]
• Initiation-This means to activate the support system (EMS system, etc.) that exists at the facility. First aid and CPR are merely stabilizing techniques until more help arrives.
• Support-To assist in the rescue and other as directed. This may involve assisting with the rescue, controlling the crowd, directing EMS personnel to the scene, etc.

flammable

Capable of easily catching fire and of burning, usually a material that has a flash point below 100°F (37.8°C).

447

A code name used by NASCO for a 4-foot tall drowning victim in 4 feet of water who is approximately 7 years old.

fracture

A chipped, cracked, or broken bone.

free-fall slide

A water park speed slide with a nearly vertical drop, giving riders the sensation of falling.

freestyle

(1) Another name for the front crawl or any of its variations. (2) A competitive event in which any style of swimming can be used. Many swimmers choose the front crawl for a freestyle event because it is their fastest stroke. Not only is any style of swimming legal in a freestyle event, but most rules even allow the swimmer to change swimming styles in mid-event. In fact, about the only ways to be disqualified in a freestyle event is to walk on the bottom, pull forward on the lane rope, not touch the wall on a turn, or not complete the distance.

front crawl

A competitive style of swimming which is also considered the fastest and best all-around stroke to learn. It is performed with alternating arm strokes and leg kicks, out-of-the-water arm recovery, body roll that causes the swimming to rotate from side to side, and rhythmic breathing on one side every cycle of arm stroking or alternate sides every one and a half cycles.

The front crawl was performed in ancient times, as portrayed in Egyptian and Assyrian bas-reliefs dating 1000s of years BCE. In addition, ancient Greek coins, circa 193 AD) portray Leander swimming to Hero, using what appears to be an arm-over-arm stroke with a flutter kick. 

In the Western world, the stroke was first seen in a swimming race held in 1844 in London, where it was swum by two Native Americans from the Anishinaabe tribe, Flying Gull and Tobacco. These Native Americans had been invited by the British Swimming Society to give an exhibition at the swimming baths in High Holborn. They raced against each other for a silver medal to be presented by the society, which was won by Flying Gull. English gentlemen, however, considered this style, with its considerable splashing and “grotesque antics,” to be “barbaric” and “un-European.” The British continued to swim only the breaststroke in competition until about 1873.

In that year, British swimmer John Arthur Trudgen learned the front crawl from native South Americans during a trip to Argentina. However, Trudgen applied the more common scissors kick from the sidestroke instead of the flutter kick used by the native South Americans. This style became known as the Trudgen stroke. Because of its speed, this stroke quickly became popular.

This style was further improved by the Australian champion swimmer, Richmond “Dick” Cavill (son of “Swimming Professor” Frederick Cavill) who developed the stroke with his brother “Tums.” They were inspired by Alick Wickham, a young Solomon Islander living in Sydney who swam a version of the crawl stroke with a two-beat flutter kick. The Cavills modified the Trudgen stroke with the flutter kick and created what became known as the Australian crawl.

An American swimmer, Charles Daniels, further modified the stroke to include a six-beat kick, thereby creating the American crawl. With minor modifications, the American crawl is the front crawl used today.

The arm movements of the front crawl provide most of the forward motion. The arms alternate from side to side, so while one arm is pulling and pushing under the water, the other arm is recovering above the water. Each complete arm movement consists of a pull and a push and is referred to as a stroke; one stroke of each arm completes a stroke cycle. The pull movement follows a semicircle, with the elbow higher than the hand, and the hand pointing towards the body center and downward. The semicircle ends in front of the chest at the beginning of the rib cage. The push moves the palm backward through the water underneath the body and to the side of the body at the end of the push.

As each arm recovers out of the water, the elbow moves in a semicircle in a vertical plane in the swimming direction. The lower arm and the hand are completely relaxed and hang down close to the water surface and the swimmer’s body. The recovering hand moves forward, with the fingers trailing downward, just above the surface of the water. In the middle of the recovery one shoulder is rotated forward into the air while the other is pointing backwards to avoid drag due of the large frontal area of the shoulders.

At the end of each arm’s recovery, another arm stroke begins. Some say the hand should enter the water thumb first, reducing drag through possible turbulence, while others say the middle finger is first with the hand precisely bent down, giving thrust right from the start. At the beginning of the pull, the hand acts like a wing, moving slower than the swimmer, while at the end the hand acts like an oar and moves faster than the swimmer.

Several kicks can be used with the front crawl. Because the front crawl is most commonly used in freestyle competitions, all kicks are legal. The most usual leg movement with the front crawl is called the flutter kick, an alternating downward kick from the hip and torso with a slight bend at the knee and ankle followed by an upward recovery of each leg. While the legs provide only a small part of the overall speed, they are important to stabilize the body position. Kicks are usually 2 or 6 beats per arm cycle, although 2, 4, 6, and 8 beats per arm cycle have been performed.

Breaths are taken through the mouth by turning the head to the side of a recovering arm at the beginning of the recovery, and breathing in the triangle between the upper arm, lower arm, and the waterline. The swimmer’s forward movement will cause a bow wave with a trough in the water surface near the ears. After exhaling in the water and turning the head, a breath can be taken in this trough without the need to move the mouth above the average water surface.

For front crawl training videos, check out these links:

• Common Freestyle Mistakes (iSport.com)
• Freestyle-6-Beat Six Stroking (GoSwim)
• Freestyle-Catch-Up Timing (GoSwim)
• Freestyle-Head Position (GoSwim)
• Freestyle-Reach full Extension (GoSwim)
• Freestyle-Reduced Stroke 100s (GoSwim)
• Freestyle-Relax and Feel (GoSwim)
• Freestyle Stroke - Swim Technique (Nathan Adrian)
• How to Develop Rhythm in Freestyle (Effortless Swimming)
• How to Swim Hip Driven Freestyle (Effortless Swimming)
• How to Side Breathe with Freestyle (iSport.com)
• How to Swim with Bent Arms with Freestyle (iSport.com)
• Swimming Freestyle 101-Body Position (SwimLabs)
• Swimming Freestyle 101-Stroking Power (SwimLabs)
• Swimming Freestyle 101-Secrets of the Flutter Kick (SwimLabs)

front drive rescue

An equipment-based swimming rescue in the International Lifeguard Training Program (ILTP) of Ellis and Associates performed by swimming to the front of a distressed or active drowning victim and pushing the rescue tube into the victim’s chest with arms straight. While continuing to keep arms straight, the lifeguard kicks the victim to safety, driving the victim backwards. Equivalent to the active victim front rescue in the American Red Cross Lifeguarding course.

frostbite

An injury caused by freezing of the skin and underlying tissues. First, your skin becomes very cold and red, then numb, hard, and pale. Although most common on exposed fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks, and chin, frostbite can occur on skin covered by gloves or other clothing. Very mild frostbite can be treated with first-aid measures, including rewarming the frozen part. More severe frostbite, characterized by white or pale skin, blisters, swelling, skin discoloration, etc., requires medical attention because it can damage skin, tissues, muscle, and bones. Possible complications of severe frostbite include infection and nerve damage.

frostnip

The first stage of frostbite, characterized by pale or red skin that feels cold to the touch. As skin is rewarmed, the patient may feel pain or tingling. Frostnip doesn’t permanently damage the skin.

fulcrum

(1) The point on which a lever rests or is supported and on which it pivots. (2) A movable wheel underneath a springboard that enables a diver to adjust the amount of “bounce” in the board.